Society for Promotion of Roman Studies (2017) p/b 436pp £36 (ISBN: 9780907764441)
This book draws together a mass of data drawn from bioarchaeology, zooarchaeology, pottery fragments, coin loss and similar material. From that evidence, the authors build up a picture of what was happening in the countryside during four centuries of Roman rule.
Chapter 2 is one of the most important chapters. This notes that arable farming was essentially a continuation of the crops and cultivation of the Iron Age, with two important differences. First, the areas under cultivation expanded. Secondly, agricultural systems changed: there were developments in plough technology; there was improved infrastructure, such as processing and storage facilities. Over time the production of spelt wheat substantially increased. Whereas during the first and second centuries much grain was imported through London, by the third century there were grain surpluses. The widespread introduction of corn-dryers across southern and central Britain is evidence of such surpluses. These surpluses seem to have been sent to the troops garrisoning Hadrian’s Wall, possibly as payments of tax in kind. That may not have met all the army’s needs. Some of the storage deposits at South Shields are of foreign origin, suggesting a continuation of imports in the later period. There were also exports. Zosimus (III.5.2) and Ammianus (XVIII.2.3) refer to grain being shipped from Britain to the Rhine frontier on occasions.
A separate chapter discusses pastoral farming. Livestock grew larger during the Roman period, especially in southern and eastern England. Full time specialist butchers appeared in towns and on military sites. More people kept chickens. There was a shift from sheep farming to cattle farming in certain areas. Cattle were used for ploughing, as well as being a source of meat. Wool production and processing became more intense.
Several chapters focus on how agricultural surplus (of all forms, not just grain) was transported. The surplus came from the more productive regions. These were southern England, eastern England and the ‘central belt’. The central belt ran roughly from the Wash to the Bristol Channel. Surplus produce moved from those regions to Wales and the north, where most of the army was based. Some transport was by sea and some was along the network of Roman roads. Livestock may have been driven over long distances. Salt was used for the preservation of meat. Much salt came from the Fens. There were also two inland salt production centres at Droitwich and Cheshire.
Pottery fragments survive well, for obvious reasons. The distribution of pottery types has left a good record of where agricultural produce was going. Imported amphorae and Samian ware served this purpose. So did locally produced pottery, such as black-burnished ware or (in the late fourth century) Crambeck pottery.
A separate chapter on ‘rural crafts and industry’ is a timely reminder that life away from urban centres was not all about farming. Other activities included mining and a plethora of crafts. The mining of iron, which had started in the Iron Age, expanded after the Roman conquest and continued to expand during the second and third centuries. Evidence of iron smithing has been found in most settlement types and across all regions of the province. There was copper mining in North Wales and Cornwall, gold mining at Dolaucothi in South Wales and tin mining in Cornwall. There was mining of lead ore in the Mendips, the Pennines, the Peak District, North Wales and Shropshire. Many lead ores also yielded silver, which the Roman authorities needed for minting coinage. Other industries of economic significance were pottery production, woodworking, stone quarrying, brick production, tile production and, of course, construction.
Towns were not the only functioning markets. Much trading took place in villages and at roadside settlements. The British economy was partly monetarised, but barter also played an important role, especially in the north and west of the province. At first sight that is curious, since most coinage entered Britain as payments to soldiers and most soldiers were stationed in the north and west. The authors give an explanation ‘It was not the militarisation of Roman provinces that led to widespread coin use, but urbanisation and the stimulation in trade that this generated’ (p. 278).
This is not just ‘another book’ about the countryside in Roman Britain. It makes a solid contribution to our understanding of Romano-British history. In particular, it addresses the all-important questions of whether the province was self-supporting; if so, when that came about and whether Britain was contributing any surplus to the wider Empire. The general picture is that the province was largely self-sufficient in the third and fourth centuries. But that picture is not a perfect one. Some foodstuffs were still imported from the Continent and sometimes surpluses were exported to the Rhine frontier. (This reviewer would suggest that transport difficulties within Britain may account for both those features.)
Each chapter is well structured, setting out the evidence in detail, then drawing conclusions at the end. The ‘evidence’ sections of each chapter are replete with tables, graphs, maps, charts and statistical analyses. This book is not designed for the general reader. It is aimed at serious classicists and professional archaeologists. For such readers it is a treasure trove.
Rupert Jackson